Behind Barbed Wire

Just five months earlier, on December 7, 1941, Japan had bombed the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The attack had embroiled the United States in World War II (1939-1945) against Japan and its allies Germany and Italy (see “Attack on Pearl Harbor,” sidebar, below). It also stirred up unjustified fears based on decades of anti-Asian discrimination. Many people in the U.S. now worried that any Japanese American could be a spy.

Just five months earlier, Japan had bombed the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The attack was on December 7, 1941. It had led the United States to join World War II (1939-1945) against Japan and its allies Germany and Italy (see “Attack on Pearl Harbor,” sidebar, below). It also stirred up unjustified fears based on decades of anti-Asian discrimination. Many people in the U.S. now worried that any Japanese American could be a spy.

Within months, the U.S. government ordered more than 120,000 people of Japanese origin into camps that it called “relocation centers.” They were forced to leave behind their homes, jobs, and lives, bringing with them only what they could carry. Like Archie, about two-thirds were American citizens.

What awaited Archie at Manzanar was bleak. Barbed wire surrounded a cluster of temporary shelters, called barracks. Armed soldiers were stationed in guard towers.  

Until then, he had been in many ways a typical teenager. Now Archie Miyatake was a prisoner.

Within months, the U.S. government ordered more than 120,000 people of Japanese origin into camps. The government called them “relocation centers.” People were forced to leave behind their homes, jobs, and lives. They took only what they could carry. Like Archie, about two-thirds were American citizens.

What awaited Archie at Manzanar was depressing. Barbed wire surrounded a cluster of temporary shelters, called barracks. Armed soldiers were stationed in guard towers.

Until then, he had been in many ways a typical teenager. Now Archie Miyatake was a prisoner.

Like other Americans, Archie had been shocked by the attack on Pearl Harbor. He was in the car with his father, Toyo, a photographer, when the alert came over the radio. 

“I couldn’t believe the news,” Archie recalled years later. Very quickly, he realized that Japanese Americans would be under extremely high suspicion. “My father was taking pictures of a wedding that day, when the FBI came and arrested some people right at the reception. They were taken away in tuxedos.”

Like other Americans, Archie had been shocked by the attack on Pearl Harbor.  The alert came over the radio. At the time, Archie was in the car with his father, Toyo. Toyo was a photographer.

“I couldn’t believe the news,” Archie recalled years later. He quickly realized that Japanese Americans would be under extremely high suspicion. “My father was taking pictures of a wedding that day, when the FBI came and arrested some people right at the reception. They were taken away in tuxedos.”

Then, in February 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066. It authorized the U.S. government to exclude people it thought might be a threat from military areas on the West Coast. Although the order didn’t say so directly, it was understood to apply to those of Japanese descent. 

At the time, about 125,000 such people were living in the U.S. Almost all of them resided in what soon became a massive “exclusion zone” (see "The Exclusion Zone" map, below). 

In late March, the government ordered Japanese Americans in that zone to begin reporting to central locations. Then they were forced to move to one of 10 incarceration camps, including Manzanar. People often didn’t know exactly where they were going, or whether they would be able to return home. In many cases, they had only a few days to sell their houses and other property.

Archie’s family was one of a lucky few who didn’t have to quickly sell everything. A neighbor offered to rent their house until they could return. Then, on May 9, the family—like many others—headed off on trains and buses into an unknown future.

Then came February 1942. That is when President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066. The order authorized the U.S. government to exclude people it thought might be a threat from military areas on the West Coast. The order did not say it applied to people of Japanese descent. But that was understood.

At the time, about 125,000 such people were living in the U.S. Almost all of them lived in what soon became a huge “exclusion zone” (see "The Exclusion Zone" map, below).

In late March, the government ordered Japanese Americans in that zone to begin reporting to central locations. Then they were forced to move to one of 10 incarceration camps. That included Manzanar. People rarely knew exactly where they were going. They did not know if they would be able to return home. In many cases, they had only a few days to sell their houses and other property.

Archie’s family was one of a lucky few who did not have to quickly sell everything. A neighbor offered to rent their house until they could return. Then, on May 9, the family headed off on trains and buses into an unknown future. So did many other families.

Manzanar was still being built when the Miyatakes arrived. The camp was a makeshift city with 504 barracks in about 1 square mile. By early September 1942, it held about 10,000 people. Just to exist was a challenge. As many as eight people were forced to share a tiny room with no furniture other than cots, a stove, and a single light bulb. The camp was located in the California desert, where temperatures ranged from 110 degrees Fahrenheit in summer to below zero in winter.  

Yet somehow, the families did their best to make life feel somewhat normal. Archie went to the camp school during the day. He took carpentry classes. Because the school and the barracks had almost no furniture, he found empty lettuce crates and leftover lumber to build chairs, benches, and shelves. Archie and his friends also managed to get a record player and records, and they played them at parties. One of their favorites was a popular song—“Don’t Fence Me In.”

Then one day that fall, Archie’s father took him aside and spoke to him in private. “I’ve got to show you something,” Toyo said. From his suitcase, he took out a camera lens that he had snuck into camp. “As a photographer, I have a responsibility,” Toyo told his son. “I have to take pictures in Manzanar, to keep a record of what’s going on here so this kind of thing will never happen again.” 

Such work was illegal at the camp. “I worried that if he got caught, he’d be arrested and taken away,” Archie later recalled. But his father was determined to put the secret camera to use.

Manzanar was still being built when the Miyatakes arrived. The camp was a makeshift city. It had 504 barracks in about 1 square mile. By early September 1942, it held about 10,000 people. Just to exist was a challenge. As many as eight people were forced to share a tiny room. They had no furniture—only cots, a stove, and a single light bulb. The camp was located in the California desert. There, temperatures ranged from 110 degrees Fahrenheit in summer to below zero in winter.

Yet the families did their best to make life feel somewhat normal. Archie went to the camp school during the day. He took carpentry classes. The school and the barracks had almost no furniture. So he found empty lettuce crates and leftover wood to build chairs, benches, and shelves. Archie and his friends also managed to get a record player and records. They played them at parties. One of their favorites was a popular song called “Don’t Fence Me In.”

Then one day that fall, Archie’s father took him aside. He spoke to him in private. “I’ve got to show you something,” Toyo said. He took out a camera lens from his suitcase. He had snuck it into camp. “As a photographer, I have a responsibility,” Toyo told his son. “I have to take pictures in Manzanar, to keep a record of what’s going on here so this kind of thing will never happen again.”

Such work was illegal at the camp. “I worried that if he got caught, he’d be arrested and taken away,” Archie later recalled. But his father was determined to put the secret camera to use.

Toyo took photographs on the sly, mostly in the early morning. He did get caught—multiple times. Eventually, Manzanar’s director gave in and made Toyo the official camp photographer. Archie worked as one of his father’s assistants, helping to document life at Manzanar. His high school class even got a yearbook with photos.

“One thing that amazes me is that my father’s thinking was so far ahead of the rest of us,” Archie later said. Partly because of Toyo, Manzanar became the most photographed and best known of all the incarceration camps.

Toyo secretly took photographs, usually in the early morning. He did get caught—multiple times. Eventually, Manzanar’s director gave in. He made Toyo the official camp photographer. Archie worked as one of his father’s assistants. He helped to document life at Manzanar. His high school class even got a yearbook with photos.

“One thing that amazes me is that my father’s thinking was so far ahead of the rest of us,” Archie later said. Manzanar became the most photographed and best known of all the incarceration camps. That was partly because of Toyo.

Still, Archie could never ignore the injustice of his family’s detention—and all that barbed wire. “I used to think: My gosh, right outside there, on that highway, is freedom,” he later said. “I [saw] the buses and trucks driving by, and I wondered how it feels to ride on that pavement.”

In 1943, the U.S. government circulated a questionnaire to the people at the incarceration camps. It included two controversial questions. One: Are you willing to serve in the armed forces of the United States? Two: Will you swear unqualified allegiance to the United States?

This “loyalty questionnaire” caused deep divisions among imprisoned Japanese Americans. Some young men saw joining the U.S. military as a way of getting out. Their choice made others, including Archie, feel betrayed and angry. 

“For us to be thrown into camp, and now they’re asking if we want to serve in the armed forces,” Archie later said. After talking it over with his father, Archie agreed to say yes to American allegiance—but a firm no to the military.

Still, Archie could never ignore the injustice of his family’s detention—and all that barbed wire. “I used to think: My gosh, right outside there, on that highway, is freedom,” he later said. “I [saw] the buses and trucks driving by, and I wondered how it feels to ride on that pavement.”

In 1943, the U.S. government sent a questionnaire to the people at the incarceration camps. It included two controversial questions. One: Are you willing to serve in the armed forces of the United States? Two: Will you swear unqualified allegiance to the United States?

This “loyalty questionnaire” caused deep divisions among imprisoned Japanese Americans. Some young men saw joining the U.S. military as a way to get out. But their choice made others, like Archie, feel betrayed and angry.

“For us to be thrown into camp, and now they’re asking if we want to serve in the armed forces,” Archie later said. He discussed it with his father. He agreed to say yes to American allegiance. But he said a firm no to the military.

By 1944, President Roosevelt and the government felt pressure to end the detentions. Fears of a Japanese invasion had faded. That year, people in some camps were allowed to leave. In December 1944, the U.S. government suspended Executive Order 9066. The incarceration camps would close by the end of 1945. 

Archie was ready. By then he had met his future wife, Takeko, at Manzanar. In spring 1945, Archie moved back to Los Angeles and found work. His family stayed at Manzanar for the time being, waiting for their house to become available. That fall, Archie and his father visited other camps to photograph them.

On September 2, 1945, Japan officially surrendered to U.S. forces.  Two months later, Manzanar closed for good. The Miyatakes were eventually able to move back into their house. But many families weren’t so lucky. Without homes or jobs, they had to start over with nothing. Lingering prejudice scared some from returning to their hometowns.

In the years to come, many Americans would express shame over the incarcerations. But it took decades for the government to formally try to right that wrong. In 1988, Congress passed a law apologizing for the incarceration camps. It gave each surviving Japanese American who had been incarcerated $20,000 in reparations. Today Manzanar is a National Historic Site, dedicated to ensuring that what happened there will not be forgotten. Most of the other camps are similarly protected by the U.S. government.

As for Archie, he continued to work with his father, documenting the lives of Japanese Americans in photos. He eventually took over the family business, Toyo Miyatake Studio. Archie died in 2016, at age 92. 

Archie’s son Alan now runs the studio in San Gabriel, California. He’s proud of the legacy his father and grandfather left—especially the collection of photos from Manzanar. “I would like it to be a symbol of the injustice to the Japanese and Japanese Americans so this never happens again,” he says.

By 1944, President Roosevelt and the government felt pressure to end the detentions. Fears of a Japanese invasion had faded. That year, people in some camps were allowed to leave. In December 1944, the U.S. government suspended Executive Order 9066. The incarceration camps would close by the end of 1945.

Archie was ready. By then he had met his future wife at Manzanar. Her name was Takeko. Archie moved back to Los Angeles in spring 1945. He found work. His family stayed at Manzanar while waiting for their house to become available. That fall, Archie and his father visited other camps to photograph them.

On September 2, 1945, Japan officially surrendered to U.S. forces. Two months later, Manzanar closed for good. The Miyatakes eventually moved back into their house. But many families were not so lucky. They were without homes or jobs. They had to start over with nothing. And prejudice remained. It scared some people from returning to their hometowns.

In the years that followed, many Americans expressed shame over the incarcerations. But it took decades for the government to formally try to right that wrong. In 1988, Congress passed a new law. It apologized for the incarceration camps. It also gave $20,000 in reparations to each surviving Japanese American who had been incarcerated. Today Manzanar is a National Historic Site. It is dedicated to ensuring that what happened there will not be forgotten. Most of the other camps are similarly protected by the U.S. government.

As for Archie, he continued to work with his father. They documented the lives of Japanese Americans in photos. Eventually, Archie took over the family business, Toyo Miyatake Studio. Archie died in 2016, at age 92.

Archie’s son Alan now runs the studio in San Gabriel, California. Alan is proud of the legacy his father and grandfather left. He is especially proud of the collection of photos from Manzanar. “I would like it to be a symbol of the injustice to the Japanese and Japanese Americans so this never happens again,” he says.